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Gerrish, G. A., Morin, J. G., Rivers, T. J., & Patrawala, Z. (2009). Darkness as an ecological resource: the role of light in partitioning the nocturnal niche. Oecologia, 160(3), 525–536.
Abstract: Nocturnal behaviors that vary as a function of light intensity, either from the setting sun or the moon, are typically labeled as circadian or circalunar. Both of these terms refer to endogenous time-dependent behaviors. In contrast, the nightly reproductive and feeding behaviors of Vargula annecohenae, a bioluminescent ostracod (Arthropoda: Crustacea) fluctuate in response to light intensity, an exogenous factor that is not strictly time-dependent. We measured adult and juvenile activity of V. annecohenae throughout lunar cycles in January/February and June 2003. Overnight and nightly measurements of foraging and reproductive behavior of adult V. annecohenae indicated that activity was greatest when a critical “dark threshold” was reached and that the dark threshold for adult V. annecohenae is met when less than a third of the moon is visible or at the intensity of light 2-3 min before the start of nautical twilight when no moon is illuminated. Juvenile V. annecohenae were also nocturnally active but demonstrated little or no response to lunar illumination, remaining active even during brightly moonlit periods. In addition to light level, water velocity also influenced the behaviors of V. annecohenae, with fewer juveniles and adults actively foraging on nights when water velocity was high (>25 cm/s). Our data demonstrate that the strongest environmental factor influencing adult feeding and reproductive behaviors of V. annecohenae is the availability of time when illumination is below the critical dark threshold. This dependence on darkness for successful growth and reproduction allows us to classify darkness as a resource, in the same way that the term has been applied to time, space and temperature.
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Kessel, L., Siganos, G., Jorgensen, T., & Larsen, M. (2011). Sleep disturbances are related to decreased transmission of blue light to the retina caused by lens yellowing. Sleep, 34(9), 1215–1219.
Abstract: STUDY OBJECTIVES: Sleep pattern and circadian rhythms are regulated via the retinohypothalamic tract in response to stimulation of a subset of retinal ganglion cells, predominantly by blue light (450-490 nm). With age, the transmission of blue light to the retina is reduced because of the aging process of the human lens, and this may impair the photoentrainment of circadian rhythm leading to sleep disorders. The aim of the study was to examine the association between lens aging and sleep disorders. DESIGN: Cross-sectional population based study. SETTING: The study was performed at the Research Center for Prevention and Health, Glostrup Hospital, Denmark and at the Department of Ophthalmology, Herlev Hospital, Denmark. PARTICIPANTS: An age- and sex-stratified sample of 970 persons aged 30 to 60 years of age drawn from a sample randomly selected from the background population. INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Sleep disturbances were evaluated by a combination of questionnaire and the use of prescription sleeping medication. Lens aging (transmission and yellowing) was measured objectively by lens autofluorometry. The risk of sleep disturbances was significantly increased when the transmission of blue light to the retina was low, even after correction for the effect of age and other confounding factors such as smoking habits, diabetes mellitus, gender, and the risk of ischemic heart disease (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Filtration of blue light by the aging lens was significantly associated with an increased risk of sleep disturbances. We propose that this is a result of disturbance of photoentrainment of circadian rhythms.
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