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Kelber, A. (2005). Light intensity limits foraging activity in nocturnal and crepuscular bees. Behavioral Ecology, 17(1), 63–72.
Abstract: A crepuscular or nocturnal lifestyle has evolved in bees several times independently, probably to explore rewarding pollen sources without competition and to minimize predation and nest parasites. Despite these obvious advantages, only few bee species are nocturnal. Here we show that the sensitivity of the bee apposition eye is a major factor limiting the ability to forage in dim light. We present data on eye size, foraging times, and light levels for Megalopta genalis (Augochlorini, Halictidae) in Panama, and Lasioglossum (Sphecodogastra) sp. (Halictini, Halictidae) in Utah, USA. M. genalis females forage exclusively during twilight, but as a result of dim light levels in the rain forest, they are adapted to extremely low intensities. The likely factor limiting their foraging activity is finding their nest entrance on return from a foraging trip. The lowest light intensity at which they can do this, both in the morning and the evening, is 0.0001 cd m−2. Therefore, they leave the nest at dimmer light levels in the morning than in the evening. Lasioglossum (Sphecodogastra) foraging is limited by light intensity in the evening, but probably by temperature in the morning in the temperate climate of Utah. We propose that the evolution of nocturnality in bees was favored by the large variance in the size of females.
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Moser, J. C., Reeve, J. D., Bento, J. M. S., Della Lucia, T. M. C., Cameron, R. S., & Heck, N. M. (1999). Eye size and behaviour of day- and night-flying leafcutting ant alates. J. Zoology, 264(1), 69–75.
Abstract: The morphology of insect eyes often seems to be shaped by evolution to match their behaviour and lifestyle. Here the relationship between the nuptial flight behaviour of 10 Atta species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and the eye size of male and female alates, including the compound eyes, ommatidia facets, and ocelli were examined. These species can be divided into two distinct groups by nuptial flight behaviour: those that initiate the nuptial flight during the day and those that initiate it at night. The most striking difference between day- vs night-flying alates was in ocellus area, which was almost 50% larger in night-flying species. Night-flying species also had significantly larger ommatidia facets than day-flying species. A scaling relationship was also found between compound eye area, facet diameter, and ocellus area vs overall body size. Detailed observations are also presented on the nuptial flight behaviour of a night- vs day-flying species, A. texana and A. sexdens, respectively. The pattern in A. texana is for a single large and precisely timed nuptial flight before dawn, while flights of A. sexdens last for several hours, beginning at midday. Further observations suggest that the timing of the nuptial flight in A. texana is easily disrupted by light pollution.
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