Luginbuhl, C. B., Lockwood, G. W., Davis, D. R., Pick, K., & Selders, J. (2009). From The Ground Up I: Light Pollution Sources in Flagstaff, Arizona. Publ Astron Soc Pac, 121(876), 185–203.
Abstract: We develop an estimate of the complete outdoor lighting of Flagstaff Arizona, as well as lighting-use densities (lumens per acre) for a number of different land uses. We find a total outdoor light output of 173 million lumens (Mlm) including sports lighting, and 139 Mlm without sports lighting, with an uncertainty of about 7%. The average fraction escaping directly upward from light fixtures is estimated to be 8.3%. After correcting approximately for near-ground blocking described in the accompanying paper by Luginbuhl et al., total uplight is estimated at 17.9 Mlm or 12.2 Mlm with and without sports lighting, respectively. Of these 17.9 Mlm, 33% arise from sports lighting, when it is on; when sports lighting is off, commercial and industrial lighting account for 62% with the remainder dominated by residential (14%) and roadway lighting (12%). We show that the 1989 Flagstaff lighting code that limited total outdoor lighting on new construction has reduced the growth rate of lighting, resulting in a 17% growth in light escaping into the sky from 1989 to 2003, compared to a 43% increase expected if the 1989 code had not been enacted. If all legally nonconforming lighting installed before 1989 were to be brought into compliance with the code, we would expect sky glow in Flagstaff to actually decrease by 36% compared to that in 2003; if all lighting, including residential, could be converted to fully shielded fixtures, sky glow would decrease to about half the current value. The implications for the most effective ways to address sky glow through lighting codes are discussed.
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Lyytimäki, J., & Rinne, J. (2013). Voices for the darkness: online survey on public perceptions on light pollution as an environmental problem. Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences, 10(2), 127–139.
Abstract: Light pollution is increasingly affecting ecosystems and human health. We present results from an online survey aimed to chart what aspects of lighting are considered harmful and how light pollution is perceived by the public. We focus on affluent societies by using Finland as an example of a northern industrialised country. The survey generated 2053 responses, particularly from well-educated urban persons living in residential areas and interested in astronomy or environmental issues. The results show that the lighting of residential areas and lighting serving traffic are considered the most common sources of light pollution while commercial lighting is perceived as the most annoying form of light use. Respondents commonly considered light pollution as a disturbance for outdoor recreation and relaxation. The results suggest that the ecological and health effects of light pollution emphasised by the research are poorly known by the people emphasising the aesthetic aspects. The results indicate relatively wide but passive acceptance for policy measures aimed at reducing light pollution.
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Lyytimäki, J., Tapio, P., & Assmuth, T. (2012). Unawareness in environmental protection: The case of light pollution from traffic. Land Use Policy, 29(3), 598–604.
Abstract: New information is often emphasized as a basis of effective and scientifically sound environmental policy and management. However, outdated or incorrect information is not automatically nor instantly replaced by new insights. This article focuses on the various ways environmental information can be unintentionally left with insufficient attention or purposefully neglected. Energy-related emissions caused by road traffic in Finland are used as an illustrative example and light pollution caused by artificial lighting is identified as an emerging issue that has gained especially low recognition in the environmental agenda. Four different reasons for this lack of recognition are discussed: recognized unawareness, false awareness, deliberate unawareness and concealed awareness. Paying attention to light pollution is important because of various ecological, socio-cultural and economic effects but also because implementing measures aimed for reducing light pollution create possibilities for alleviating other social and environmental problems in transport and land use policies.
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Semeniuk, K. (Ed.). (2014). Gazing Up: An Exploration of Municipal Night Lighting Practices Amongst Six Canadian Municipalities. Master's thesis, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario.
Abstract: Light pollution is broadly defined as the unnecessary illumination of the nocturnal environment. Light pollution is a pervasive phenomena shown to have harmful consequences for both the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem. While some municipalities have begun to address the environmental and economic costs of light pollution, most have not. The goal of this study was to investigate current municipal night lighting practices for six selected Canadian municipalities with the aim of determining their policies and practices for night lighting. Semi-structured interviews with key informants were conducted and analyzed using a mixed methods approach that included a thorough literature review. The results indicate that rising energy costs, aging infrastructure and the lighting industry are driving the majority of changes taking place in adapting municipalities while most municipalities remain content with status quo. The research conducted led to guideline improvements for municipal night lighting in today’s municipalities.
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