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Berthaume, T. S. (2007). Light Pollution: A Case for Federal Regulation? Graduate Thesis. Rochester, New York: Rochester Institute of Technology, .
Abstract: The purpose of this thesis is to examine the body of evidence concerning light pollution and exposure to artificial light and determine if the scientific research warrants regulatory oversight in the United States. The first question that guided this effort was: Does improper artificial lighting and exposure to light-at-night constitute a risk to human health and safety? The follow up question being: Is light pollution a concern to ecological systems, and if so to what extent? A comprehensive literature review was conducted to ascertain the status of the research—if any—in these two areas and what the findings were. The overarching purpose of this thesis was to answer the primary question: Does the scientific research on light pollution and exposure to light-at-night exposure make a case for regulatory oversight, within the mandate of the EPA? The questions were illuminated by conducting a thorough literature review, doing an informal email survey, and by in-depth interviews with people researching artificial light and with individuals in the EPA. The study concluded that there is no ready consensus to be reached in this area. Such a disparate topic as light pollution does not readily lend itself to an easy answer. However, the findings show that light pollution and light-at-night exposure do have some negative impact. This is especially true in regards to the night sky and the biota. Whether the EPA should be involved in regulating it is not entirely clear. Their mission statement leads one to presume that certain effects of light pollution do fall under their mandate. More research to quantify the effects of artificial light on humans is critically needed to show causation between artificial light exposure and health problems.
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Boyce, P., Fotios, S., & Richards, M. (2009). Road lighting and energy saving. Lighting Research and Technology, 41(3), 245–260.
Abstract: This paper examines how the lighting of roads in the UK might be changed so as to preserve the benefits while minimising energy consumption. It is divided into four sections, these being changes in technology, changes in patterns of use, changes in standards and contracts and changes in the basis of design. Useful changes in technology and patterns of use are available now, but their use will raise the question as to whether or not environmental considerations can override conventional financial constraints. Changes in standards and the basis of design are much more long term. Comparisons of road lighting standards used in different countries show significant differences that deserve examination. As for the basis of design, consideration of the importance of light to fatal and personal injury accidents of different types suggests that road lighting should be concentrated where pedestrians are common, not where speeds are highest. Ultimately, considering carefully what problem road lighting is intended to solve and whether or not road lighting is the best answer is the key to minimising the energy consumption of road lighting without diminishing road safety.
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Daukantas, P. (2012). Light Pollution: The Problem and the Possible Solutions. Optics & Photonics News, 23(7), 30.
Abstract: Over the past quarter-century, scientists have become increasingly aware of the problems that light pollution causes for astronomers, migrating birds and human health and safety. Finding effective means to reduce the effects will take the combined efforts of research scientists, lighting engineers, architects, city planners, businesspeople and homeowners.
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Fulop, P., Hanuliak, P., & Mankova, L. (2014). Case Study of Light Pollution in Urbanized Area of Slovakia. Amr, 899, 277–282.
Abstract: This paper deals with the problem of light pollution and its potential impact on human body. Loss of darkness during the night has a negative effect on the environment, animals, plants and humans. Concerning humans, the light during the night can lead to desynchronization of circadian rhythms with subsequent lower production of sleeping hormone called melatonin. In addition to the negative impact on organisms, there is also economical effect of wastage of lighting during the night. Pollution caused by the occurrence of light during the night is relatively new term, which has been perceived very roughly so far. That is probably the reason, why Slovak legislation deals with this problem very roughly. Some limitation levels of illuminance of billboards were stated, but the legislation doesn ́t deal with the effect of the occurrence of higly influential light during the night on people at their homes.
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Kyba, C. C. M., Hänel, A., & Hölker, F. (2014). Redefining efficiency for outdoor lighting. Energy Environ. Sci., 7(6), 1806.
Abstract: Improvements in the luminous efficiency of outdoor lamps might not result in energy savings or reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. The reason for this is a rebound effect: when light becomes cheaper, many users will increase illumination, and some previously unlit areas may become lit. We present three policy recommendations that work together to guarantee major energy reductions in street lighting systems. First, taking advantage of new technologies to use light only when and where it is needed. Second, defining maximum permitted illuminances for roadway lighting. Third, defining street lighting system efficiency in terms of kilowatt hours per kilometer per year. Adoption of these policies would not only save energy, but would greatly reduce the amount of light pollution produced by cities. The goal of lighting policy should be to provide the light needed for any given task while minimizing both the energy use and negative environmental side effects of the light.
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